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Oxycodone, sold under various brand names such as Roxicodone and OxyContin (which is the extended release form), is a semi-synthetic opioid used medically for treatment of moderate to severe pain. It is highly addictive[14] and is a commonly abused drug.[15][16] It is usually taken by mouth, and is available in immediate-release and controlled ...
Bayer AG (/ ˈ b aɪ. ər /, commonly pronounced / ˈ b eɪ ər /; German:) is a German multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company and is one of the largest pharmaceutical companies and biomedical companies in the world. Headquartered in Leverkusen, Bayer's areas of business include: pharmaceuticals, consumer healthcare products, agricultural chemicals, seeds and biotechnology ...
Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.[10] Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.[10] Aspirin is also used long-term to ...
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Stability of the solid
Anhydrous sodium hypochlorite can be prepared but, like many hypochlorites, it is highly unstable and decomposes explosively on heating or friction. The decomposition is accelerated by carbon dioxide at atmospheric levels. It is a white solid with the orthorhombic crystal structure. Sodium hypochlorite can also be obtained as a crystalline pentahydrate NaOCl·5H2O, which is not explosive and is much more stable than the anhydrous compound. The formula is sometimes given in its hydrous crystall...
Equilibria and stability of solutions
At typical ambient temperatures, sodium hypochlorite is more stable in dilute solutions that contain solvated Na+ and OCl− ions. The density of the solution is 1.093 g/mL at 5% concentration, and 1.21 g/mL at 14%, 20 °C. Stoichiometric solutions are fairly alkaline, with pH 11 or higher since hypochlorous acid is a weak acid: 1. OCl− + H2O ⇌ HOCl + OH− The following species and equilibria are present in NaOCl/NaCl solutions: 1. HOCl(aq) ⇌ H+ + OCl− 2. HOCl(aq) + Cl− + H+ ⇌ Cl2(aq) + H2O 3. Cl...
Decomposition to chlorate or oxygen
In solution, under certain conditions, the hypochlorite anion may also disproportionate (autoxidize) to chloride and chlorate: 1. 3 ClO− + H+ → HClO3 + 2 Cl− In particular, this reaction occurs in sodium hypochlorite solutions at high temperatures, forming sodium chlorateand sodium chloride: 1. 3 NaOCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) This reaction is exploited in the industrial production of sodium chlorate. An alternative decomposition of hypochlorite produces oxygen instead: 1. 2 OCl− → 2 Cl−...
Chlorination of soda
Potassium hypochlorite was first produced in 1789 by Claude Louis Berthollet in his laboratory on the Quai de Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of potash lye. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of potassium hypochlorite. Antoine Labarraque replaced potash lye by the cheaper soda lye, thus obtaining sodium hypochlorite (Eau de Labarraque). 1. Cl2(g) + 2 NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O Hence, chlorine is simu...
From calcium hypochlorite
Another method involved the reaction of sodium carbonate ("washing soda") with chlorinated lime ("bleaching powder"), a mixture of calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2, calcium chloride CaCl2, and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2: 1. Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OCl)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaOCl(aq) 2. Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaCl(aq) 3. Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → CaCO3(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) This method was commonly used to produce hypochlorite solutions for use as a hospital antiseptic that was sold after World Wa...
Electrolysis of brine
Near the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Smith patented the chloralkali process: a method of producing sodium hypochlorite involving the electrolysis of brine to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas, which then mixed to form sodium hypochlorite.The key reactions are: 1. 2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e− (at the anode) 2. 2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 −OH (at the cathode) Both electric power and brine solution were in cheap supply at the time, and various enterprising marketers took advantage of the situat...
Household bleach sold for use in laundering clothes is a 3–8% solutionof sodium hypochlorite at the time of manufacture. Strength varies from one formulation to another and gradually decreases with long storage. Sodium hydroxide is usually added in small amounts to household bleach to slow down the decomposition of NaClO. Domestic use patio blacksp...
Bleaching
Household bleach is, in general, a solution containing 3–8% sodium hypochlorite, by weight, and 0.01–0.05% sodium hydroxide; the sodium hydroxide is used to slow the decomposition of sodium hypochlorite into sodium chloride and sodium chlorate.
Cleaning
Sodium hypochlorite has destaining properties. Among other applications, it can be used to remove mold stains, dental stains caused by fluorosis, and stains on crockery, especially those caused by the tannins in tea. It has also been used in laundry detergents and as a surface cleaner. It is also used in sodium hypochlorite washes. Its bleaching, cleaning, deodorizing and caustic effects are due to oxidation and hydrolysis (saponification). Organic dirt exposed to hypochlorite becomes water-s...
Disinfection
Sodium hypochlorite in solution exhibits broad spectrum anti-microbial activity and is widely used in healthcare facilities in a variety of settings. It is usually diluted in water depending on its intended use. "Strong chlorine solution" is a 0.5% solution of hypochlorite (containing approximately 5000 ppm free chlorine) used for disinfecting areas contaminated with body fluids, including large blood spills (the area is first cleaned with detergent before being disinfected). It may be made b...
Dilute sodium hypochlorite solutions (as in household bleach) are irritating to mainly the skin and respiratory tract. Short-term skin contact with household bleach may cause dryness of the skin. It is estimated that there are about 3,300 accidents needing hospital treatment caused by sodium hypochlorite solutions each year in British homes (RoSPA,...
In spite of its strong biocidal action, sodium hypochlorite per se has limited environmental impact, since the hypochlorite ion rapidly degrades before it can be absorbed by living beings. However, one major concern arising from sodium hypochlorite use is that it tends to form persistent chlorinated organic compounds, including known carcinogens, t...
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA; conjugate base perfluorooctanoate; also known colloquially as C8, for its 8-carbon chain structure) is a perfluorinated carboxylic acid produced and used worldwide as an industrial surfactant in chemical processes and as a material feedstock. PFOA is considered a surfactant, or fluorosurfactant, due to its ...
Tramadol, sold under the brand name Ultram among others,[1] is an opioid pain medication and a serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) used to treat moderately severe pain.[3][14] When taken by mouth in an immediate-release formulation, the onset of pain relief usually begins within an hour.[3] It is also available by injection ...
Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication[7][8] which is involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration).[7][9] It appears as a white microcrystalline granule.[10] Adrenaline is normally produced by the adrenal glands and by a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata.[11] It plays an essential ...
