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  1. en.wikipedia.org › wiki › CaffeineCaffeine - Wikipedia

    Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. [9] It is mainly used as a eugeroic ( wakefulness promoter) or as a mild cognitive enhancer to increase alertness and attentional performance. [10] [11] Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine to the adenosine A 1 receptor, which enhances release of the ...

  2. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA; conjugate base perfluorooctanoate; also known colloquially as C8, for its 8-carbon chain structure) is a perfluorinated carboxylic acid produced and used worldwide as an industrial surfactant in chemical processes and as a material feedstock. PFOA is considered a surfactant, or fluorosurfactant, due to its ...

  3. en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Citric_acidCitric acid - Wikipedia

    • Natural Occurrence and Industrial Production
    • Chemical Characteristics
    • Biochemistry
    • Applications
    • Synthesis of Other Organic Compounds
    • Safety
    • Compendial Status
    • See Also

    Citric acid occurs in a variety of fruits and vegetables, most notably citrus fruits. Lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid; it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits (about 47 g/L in the juices).[a] The concentrations of citric acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefr...

    Citric acid can be obtained as an anhydrous (water-free) form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the monohydrate forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the anhydrous form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in absolute (anhydrous) ethanol (76 parts o...

    Citric acid cycle

    Citrate is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, also known as the TCA (TriCarboxylic Acid) cycle or the Krebs cycle, a central metabolic pathway for animals, plants, and bacteria. Citrate synthase catalyzes the condensation of oxaloacetate with acetyl CoA to form citrate. Citrate then acts as the substrate for aconitase and is converted into aconitic acid. The cycle ends with regeneration of oxaloacetate. This series of chemical reactions is the source of two-thirds of the food-derived e...

    Other biological roles

    Citrate can be transported out of the mitochondria and into the cytoplasm, then broken down into acetyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis, and into oxaloacetate. Citrate is a positive modulator of this conversion, and allosterically regulates the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which is the regulating enzyme in the conversion of acetyl-CoA into malonyl-CoA(the commitment step in fatty acid synthesis). In short, citrate is transported into the cytoplasm, converted into acetyl-CoA, which is then conv...

    Food and drink

    Because it is one of the stronger edible acids, the dominant use of citric acid is as a flavoring and preservative in food and beverages, especially soft drinks and candies. Within the European Union it is denoted by E number E330. Citrate salts of various metals are used to deliver those minerals in a biologically available form in many dietary supplements. Citric acid has 247 kcal per 100 g. In the United States the purity requirements for citric acid as a food additive are defined by the F...

    Cleaning and chelating agent

    Citric acid is an excellent chelating agent, binding metals by making them soluble. It is used to remove and discourage the buildup of limescale from boilers and evaporators. It can be used to treat water, which makes it useful in improving the effectiveness of soaps and laundry detergents. By chelating the metals in hard water, it lets these cleaners produce foam and work better without need for water softening. Citric acid is the active ingredient in some bathroom and kitchen cleaning solut...

    Cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements, and foods

    Citric acid is used as an acidulantin creams, gels, and liquids. Used in foods and dietary supplements, it may be classified as a processing aid if it was added for a technical or functional effect (e.g. acidulent, chelator, viscosifier, etc.). If it is still present in insignificant amounts, and the technical or functional effect is no longer present, it may be exempt from labeling <21 CFR §101.100(c)>. Citric acid is an alpha hydroxy acidand is an active ingredient in chemical skin peels. C...

    Citric acid is a versatile precursor to many other organic compounds. Dehydration routes give itaconic acid and its anhydride. Citraconic acid can be produced via thermal isomerization of itaconic acid anhydride. The required itaconic acid anhydride is obtained by dry distillation of citric acid. Aconitic acid can be synthesized by dehydration of c...

    Although a weak acid, exposure to pure citric acid can cause adverse effects. Inhalation may cause cough, shortness of breath, or sore throat. Over-ingestion may cause abdominal pain and sore throat. Exposure of concentrated solutions to skin and eyes can cause redness and pain. Long-term or repeated consumption may cause erosion of tooth enamel.

    The closely related acids isocitric acid, aconitic acid, and propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid(tricarballylic acid, carballylic acid)
  4. Sodium bicarbonate ( IUPAC name: sodium hydrogencarbonate [9] ), commonly known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda, is a chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3. It is a salt composed of a sodium cation ( Na +) and a bicarbonate anion ( HCO 3− ). Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder.

  5. en.wikipedia.org › wiki › TaiwanTaiwan - Wikipedia

    Taiwan,[II][k] officially the Republic of China (ROC),[I][l] is a country[27] in East Asia.[o] It is located at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. The territories controlled by the ...

  6. en.wikipedia.org › wiki › AspirinAspirin - Wikipedia

    Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.[10] Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.[10] Aspirin is also used long-term to ...

  7. en.wikipedia.org › wiki › StoicismStoicism - Wikipedia

    Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. [1] The Stoics believed that the practice of virtue is enough to achieve eudaimonia: a well-lived life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent practicing the four virtues in everyday life: wisdom, courage, temperance or ...

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