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This is a list of countries by external debt: it is the total public and private debt owed to nonresidents repayable in internationally accepted currencies, goods or services, where the public debt is the money or credit owed by any level of government, from central to local, and the private debt the money or credit owed by private households or...
Latest 13th and 14th generation Core Desktop - Raptor Lake-S Refresh (codenamed "Raptor Lake") (14th Gen)An iterative refresh of Raptor Lake-S desktop processors, called the 14th generation of Intel Core, was launched on October 17, 2023. CPUs in bold below feature ECC memory support only when paired with a motherboard based on the W680 chipset according to each respective Intel Ark product page.
Toggle Desktop processors subsection. Nehalem microarchitecture (1st generation) "Lynnfield" (45 nm) Westmere microarchitecture (1st generation) "Clarkdale" (MCP, 32 nm dual-core) Sandy Bridge microarchitecture (2nd generation) "Sandy Bridge" (dual-core, 32 nm) "Sandy Bridge" (quad-core, 32 nm) Ivy Bridge microarchitecture (3rd generation)
- Fundamental Operation
- History
- Control Loop Example
- Loop Tuning
- Limitations
- Modifications to The Algorithm
- Cascade Control
- Alternative Nomenclature and Forms
- Pseudocode
- External Links
The distinguishing feature of the PID controller is the ability to use the three control terms of proportional, integral and derivative influence on the controller output to apply accurate and optimal control. The block diagram on the right shows the principles of how these terms are generated and applied. It shows a PID controller, which continuou...
Origins
Continuous control, before PID controllers were fully understood and implemented, has one of its origins in the centrifugal governor, which uses rotating weights to control a process. This had been invented by Christiaan Huygens in the 17th century to regulate the gap between millstones in windmillsdepending on the speed of rotation, and thereby compensate for the variable speed of grain feed. With the invention of the low-pressure stationary steam engine there was a need for automatic speed...
Industrial control
The wide use of feedback controllers did not become feasible until the development of wideband high-gain amplifiers to use the concept of negative feedback. This had been developed in telephone engineering electronics by Harold Black in the late 1920s, but not published until 1934. Independently, Clesson E Mason of the Foxboro Company in 1930 invented a wide-band pneumatic controller by combining the nozzle and flapper high-gain pneumatic amplifier, which had been invented in 1914, with negat...
Electronic analog controllers
Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Discrete electronic analog controllers have been largely replaced by digital controllers using microcontrollers or FPGAsto implement PID algorithms. However, discrete analog PID controllers are still used in niche applications requiring high-bandw...
Consider a robotic arm that can be moved and positioned by a control loop. An electric motor may lift or lower the arm, depending on forward or reverse power applied, but power cannot be a simple function of position because of the inertial massof the arm, forces due to gravity, external forces on the arm such as a load to lift or work to be done o...
Tuninga control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (proportional band/gain, integral gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response. Stability (no unbounded oscillation) is a basic requirement, but beyond that, different systems have different behavior, different applications have different re...
While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, and often perform satisfactorily without any improvements or only coarse tuning, they can perform poorly in some applications and do not in general provide optimal control. The fundamental difficulty with PID control is that it is a feedback control system, with constant parameters, and...
The basic PID algorithm presents some challenges in control applications that have been addressed by minor modifications to the PID form.
One distinctive advantage of PID controllers is that two PID controllers can be used together to yield better dynamic performance. This is called cascaded PID control. Two controllers are in cascade when they are arranged so that one regulates the set point of the other. A PID controller acts as outer loop controller, which controls the primary phy...
Standard versus parallel (ideal) form
The form of the PID controller most often encountered in industry, and the one most relevant to tuning algorithms is the standard form. In this form the K p {\\displaystyle K_{p}} gain is applied to the I o u t {\\displaystyle I_{\\mathrm {out} }} , and D o u t {\\displaystyle D_{\\mathrm {out} }} terms, yielding: 1. u ( t ) = K p ( e ( t ) + 1 T i ∫ 0 t e ( τ ) d τ + T d d d t e ( t ) ) {\\displaystyle u(t)=K_{p}\\left(e(t)+{\\frac {1}{T_{i}}}\\int _{0}^{t}e(\\tau )\\,d\\tau +T_{d}{\\frac {d}{dt}}e(t)\\ri...
Reciprocal gain, a.k.a. proportional band
In many cases, the manipulated variable output by the PID controller is a dimensionless fraction between 0 and 100% of some maximum possible value, and the translation into real units (such as pumping rate or watts of heater power) is outside the PID controller. The process variable, however, is in dimensioned units such as temperature. It is common in this case to express the gain K p {\\displaystyle K_{p}} not as "output per degree", but rather in the reciprocal form of a proportional band 1...
Basing derivative action on PV
In most commercial control systems, derivative action is based on process variable rather than error. That is, a change in the setpoint does not affect the derivative action. This is because the digitized version of the algorithm produces a large unwanted spike when the setpoint is changed. If the setpoint is constant then changes in the PV will be the same as changes in error. Therefore, this modification makes no difference to the way the controller responds to process disturbances.
Here is a simple software loop that implements a PID algorithm: 1. Kp - proportional gain 2. Ki - integral gain 3. Kd - derivative gain 4. dt - loop interval time In this example, two variables that will be maintained within the loop are initialized to zero, then the loop begins. The current error is calculated by subtracting the measured_value (th...
The Ryzen family is an x86-64 microprocessor family from AMD, based on the Zen microarchitecture. The Ryzen lineup includes Ryzen 3, Ryzen 5, Ryzen 7, Ryzen 9, and Ryzen Threadripper with up to 96 cores. All consumer desktop Ryzens (except PRO models) and all mobile processors with the HX suffix have an unlocked multiplier.
GDP (PPP) means gross domestic product based on purchasing power parity. This article includes a list of countries by their forecast estimated GDP (PPP). [2] . Countries are sorted by GDP (PPP) forecast estimates from financial and statistical institutions that calculate using market or government official exchange rates.
Life expectancy in Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan. life expectancy in countries of the South Caucasus and neighboring countries. Life expectancy in some Asian countries. Life expectancy in some countries of South-East Asia and Oceania. Life expectancy at birth in some countries of the Near East.