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Metformin, sold under the brand name Glucophage, among others, is the main first-line medication for the treatment of type 2 diabetes,[12][13][14][15] particularly in people who are overweight.[13] It is also used in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome.[14] It is sometimes used as an off-label adjunct to lessen the risk of metabolic ...
- C₄H₁₁N₅
- AU: C
- Not by liver
- Fortamet, Glucophage, Glumetza, others
Diazepam, sold under the brand name Valium among others, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that acts as an anxiolytic.[13] It is used to treat a range of conditions, including anxiety, seizures, alcohol withdrawal syndrome, muscle spasms, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome.[13] It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain ...
- C₁₆H₁₃ClN₂O
- Valium, Vazepam, Valtoco, others
- AU: C
- Effects by Dosage
- Effect on Different Population
- Allergic reaction-like Symptoms
- Pathophysiology
- Alcohol and Sleep
- Alcohol Consumption and Balance
- Alcohol and Postprandial Triglycerides
- Alcohol and Blood Pressure
- Alcohol and Pain
- See Also
The definition of a unit of alcohol ranges between 8 and 14 grams of pure alcohol/ethanol depending on the country. There is no agreement on definitions of a low, moderate or high dose of alcohol either. The U.S. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism defines a moderate dose as alcohol intake up to two standard drinks or 28 grams for me...
Based on sex
Alcohol affects males and females differently because of difference in body fat percentage and water content. On average, for equal body weight, women have a higher body fat percentage than men. Since alcohol is absorbed into body water content and men have more water in their bodies than women, for women there will be a higher blood alcohol concentration from the same amount of alcohol consumption. Women are also thought to have less alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) enzyme which is required to br...
Based on genetic variation
Alcohol metabolism depends on the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). Genetic variants of the genes coding for these enzymes can affect the rate of alcohol metabolism. Some ADH gene variants lead to higher metabolic activity, resulting in the accumulation of acetaldehyde, whereas, a null allele in ALDH2 causes an accumulation of acetaldehyde by preventing its catabolism to acetate. The genetic variants of these enzymes can explain the differences in the alco...
Humans metabolize ethanol primarily through NAD+-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) class I enzymes (i.e. ADH1A, ADH1B, and ADH1C) to acetaldehyde and then metabolize acetaldehyde primarily by NAD2-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) to acetic acid. Eastern Asians reportedly have a deficiency in acetaldehyde metabolism in a surprisingly h...
At low or moderate doses, alcohol acts primarily as a positive allosteric modulator of GABAA. Alcohol also acts as a stimulant in low doses, as it triggers the release of dopamine in the striatum, with this mechanism also being responsible for the compound's interaction with the brain's reward system. Alcohol binds to several different subtypes of ...
Low doses of alcohol (one 360 mL (13 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) beer) appear to increase total sleep time and reduce awakening during the night. The sleep-promoting benefits of alcohol dissipate at moderate and higher doses of alcohol. Previous experience with alcohol also influences the extent to which alcohol positively or negatively affects sleep. ...
Alcohol can affect balance by altering the viscosity of the endolymph within the otolithic membrane, the fluid inside the semicircular canals inside the ear. The endolymph surrounds the ampullary cupula which contains hair cells within the semicircular canals. When the head is tilted, the endolymph flows and moves the cupula. The hair cells then be...
Alcohol taken with a meal increases and prolongs postprandial triglyceridemia. This is true despite the observation that the relationship between alcohol consumption and triglyceridemia is "J-shaped," meaning that fasting triglycerides concentration is lower in people who drink 10–20 g/alcohol a day compared to people who either abstain from alcoho...
A systematic review reported that alcohol has bi-phasic effect on blood pressure. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure fell when they were measured couple of hours after alcohol consumption. However, the longer term measurement (20 hours average) showed a modest but statistically significant increase in blood pressure: a 2.7 mmHg rise in syst...
A 2015 literature review found that alcohol administration confers acute pain-inhibitory effects. It also found the relationship between alcohol consumption and pain is curvilinear; moderate alcohol use was associated with positive pain-related outcomes and heavy alcohol use was associated with negative pain-related outcomes.
Tramadol, sold under the brand name Ultram among others,[1] is an opioid pain medication and a serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) used to treat moderately severe pain.[3][13] When taken by mouth in an immediate-release formulation, the onset of pain relief usually begins within an hour.[3] It is also available by injection ...
Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic used medically for induction and maintenance of anesthesia. It is also used as a treatment for depression and pain management.[19] It is a novel compound that was derived from phencyclidine in 1962 in pursuit of a safer anesthetic with fewer hallucinogenic effects.[20][21] At anesthetic doses, ketamine ...
- C₁₃H₁₆ClNO
- Ketalar, others
- AU: B3
Classical conditioning (also respondent conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food, a puff of air on the eye, a potential rival) is paired with a neutral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a musical triangle ). The term classical conditioning refers to the process of an ...
Paracetamol (acetaminophen[a]) is a non-opioid analgesic and antipyretic agent used to treat fever and mild to moderate pain.[13][14][15] It is a widely used over the counter medication. Common brand names include Tylenol and Panadol. At a standard dose, paracetamol only slightly reduces fever;[14][16][17] it is inferior to ibuprofen in that ...
