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Etymology. Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis is the longest word in the English language. The word can be analysed as follows: Pneumono: from ancient Greek ( πνεύμων, pneúmōn) which means lungs. ultra: from Latin, meaning beyond. micro and scopic: from ancient Greek, meaning small looking, referring to the fineness of particulates
Lou Henry Hoover (March 29, 1874 – January 7, 1944) was the first lady of the United States from 1929 to 1933 as the wife of President Herbert Hoover. She was active in community groups, including the Girl Scouts of the USA, which she led from 1922 to 1925 and from 1935 to 1937. She was the first woman to earn a geology degree from Stanford.
Strabismus, otherwise known as improper eye alignment, is caused by imbalances in the actions of muscles that rotate the eyes. This condition can sometimes be relieved by weakening a muscle that pulls too strongly, or pulls against one that has been weakened by disease or trauma.
- Definition
- History
- Typical Values
- Microscopic Explanation
- Dispersion
- Complex Refractive Index
- Relations to Other Quantities
- Nonscalar, Nonlinear, Or Nonhomogeneous Refraction
- Refractive Index Measurement
- Applications
The relative refractive index of an optical medium 2 with respect to another reference medium 1 (n21) is given by the ratio of speed of light in medium 1 to that in medium 2. This can be expressed as follows: The absolute refractive index n of an optical medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, c = 299792458 m/s, and the phas...
Thomas Young was presumably the person who first used, and invented, the name "index of refraction", in 1807.At the same time he changed this value of refractive power into a single number, instead of the traditional ratio of two numbers. The ratio had the disadvantage of different appearances. Newton, who called it the "proportion of the sines of ...
Refractive index also varies with wavelength of the light as given by Cauchy's equation: The most general form of Cauchy's equationis Usually, it is sufficient to use a two-term form of the equation: For visible light most transparent media have refractive indices between 1 and 2. A few examples are given in the adjacent table. These values are mea...
At the atomic scale, an electromagnetic wave's phase velocity is slowed in a material because the electric field creates a disturbance in the charges of each atom (primarily the electrons) proportional to the electric susceptibility of the medium. (Similarly, the magnetic field creates a disturbance proportional to the magnetic susceptibility.) As ...
The refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength (and frequency) of light. This is called dispersion and causes prisms and rainbows to divide white light into its constituent spectral colors. As the refractive index varies with wavelength, so will the refraction angle as light goes from one material to another. Dispersion also causes th...
When light passes through a medium, some part of it will always be absorbed. This can be conveniently taken into account by defining a complex refractive index, Here, the real part n is the refractive index and indicates the phase velocity, while the imaginary part κ is called the optical extinction coefficient or absorption coefficient—although κ ...
Optical path length
Optical path length (OPL) is the product of the geometric length d of the path light follows through a system, and the index of refraction of the medium through which it propagates,OPL = n d . {\\text{OPL}}=nd. This is an important concept in optics because it determines the phase of the light and governs interference and diffraction of light as it propagates. According to Fermat's principle, light rays can be characterized as those curves that optimize the optical path length.: 68–69
Refraction
When light moves from one medium to another, it changes direction, i.e. it is refracted. If it moves from a medium with refractive index n1 to one with refractive index n2, with an incidence angle to the surface normal of θ1, the refraction angle θ2 can be calculated from Snell's law: When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the re...
Total internal reflection
If there is no angle θ2fulfilling Snell's law, i.e.,
So far, we have assumed that refraction is given by linear equations involving a spatially constant, scalar refractive index. These assumptions can break down in different ways, to be described in the following subsections.
Homogeneous media
The refractive index of liquids or solids can be measured with refractometers. They typically measure some angle of refraction or the critical angle for total internal reflection. The first laboratory refractometers sold commercially were developed by Ernst Abbe in the late 19th century.The same principles are still used today. In this instrument, a thin layer of the liquid to be measured is placed between two prisms. Light is shone through the liquid at incidence angles all the way up to 90°...
Refractive index variations
Unstained biological structures appear mostly transparent under bright-field microscopyas most cellular structures do not attenuate appreciable quantities of light. Nevertheless, the variation in the materials that constitute these structures also corresponds to a variation in the refractive index. The following techniques convert such variation into measurable amplitude differences: To measure the spatial variation of the refractive index in a sample phase-contrast imaging methods are used....
The refractive index is an important property of the components of any optical instrument. It determines the focusing power of lenses, the dispersive power of prisms, the reflectivity of lens coatings, and the light-guiding nature of optical fiber. Since the refractive index is a fundamental physical property of a substance, it is often used to ide...
Dune (titled onscreen as Dune: Part One) is a 2021 American epic science fiction film directed and co-produced by Denis Villeneuve, who co-wrote the screenplay with Jon Spaihts and Eric Roth. It is the first of a two-part adaptation of the 1965 novel of the same name by Frank Herbert.
The following notable deaths occurred in 2024. Names are reported under the date of death, in alphabetical order. A typical entry reports information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent nationality (if applicable), what subject was noted for, cause of death (if known), and reference.
Taylor Alison Swift (born December 13, 1989) is an American singer-songwriter. A subject of widespread public interest, she has been named by various publications as one of the greatest songwriters.Her artistry and entrepreneurship has influenced the music industry and popular culture, and she is an advocate of artists' rights and women's empowerment.